Tag Archives: Cocaine

Phenethylamine Analogues and Addiction

September 24, 2014

Phenethylamine Analogues Are Potentially Addictive

PhenethylamineAmphetamine was used to treat children with attention deficit disorder until its addictive potential was recognized. The fact that it could be abused led the physicians to do lots of research in order to come up with its substitute in medical field that did not have much adverse effects. However to the youths amphetamine has become a substance of abuse that many are familiar with. Here are details of the experiments, the substitutes or other the amphetamine analogues and how they work.

In an experiment Methylphenidate was found to inhibit competitively the striatal dopamine transporter (DAT) and bind at sites on the DAT in common with both cocaine (a non-substrate site ligand) and amphetamine (a substrate site ligand). Some methylphenidate analogues modified on the aromatic ring or at the nitrogen were tested to determine whether the profile of inhibition could be altered. None was found to stimulate the release of dopamine in the time frame of 60 seconds of the experiments conducted, and each of the analogues tested was found to noncompetitively inhibit the transport of dopamine. It was found that halogenating the aromatic ring with chlorine (threo-3, 4-dichloromethylphenidate hydrochloride; compound;

1) Increased the affinity of Methylphenidate to inhibit the transport of dopamine. A derivative of Methylphenidate with simultaneous, single methyl group substitutions on the phenyl ring and at the nitrogen (threo-N-methyl-4-methylphenidate hydrochloride; compound

2) Bound at a site in common with Methylphenidate. A benzyl group positioned at the nitrogen (three-N-benzylmethylphenidate hydrochloride; compound

3) Imparted properties to the inhibitor in which binding at substrate and non-substrate sites could be distinguished. This analogue bound at a mutually interacting site with that of methylphenidate and had a Kint value of 4.29 mM. Furthermore, the N-substituted analogues (compounds 2 and 3), although clearly inhibitors of dopamine transport, were found to attenuate dramatically the inhibition of dopamine transport by amphetamine, suggesting that the development of an antagonist for substrate analogue drugs of abuse may be possible.

PhenethylamineMethylphenidate is currently the most commonly prescribed drug to treat children with attention deficit disorder and is also used to treat narcolepsy. Originally, amphetamine was used to treat children with attention deficit disorder until its addictive potential was recognized. It was estimated in 1992 that 3% of school age children were being treated with Methylphenidate for some extended interval. These numbers have continued to increase. Methylphenidate is not thought to stimulate dopamine synthesis or induce release of dopamine from nerve terminals. The action of Methylphenidate is to block the inward transport of dopamine into the presynaptic terminal, resulting in a prolonged dopamine stimulus.

Although Methylphenidate, a psychomotor stimulant agent, has been shown to have abuse potential, it is still the drug of choice for the treatment of children with attention deficit disorder. Methylphenidate has been shown to bind at the dopamine transporter (DAT) and its binding is saturable and specific for the DAT but it is not clear where Methylphenidate binds on the transporter relative to dopamine and other inhibitors of transport.

Methylphenidate is thought to have behavioral, pharmacological, and binding properties similar to those of amphetamine. Therefore, Methylphenidate has been classified as a non-transported inhibitor of DAT as well as a substrate analogue for DAT when present at high concentrations these discrepancies have led to the current study, which focuses on comparing the inhibition properties and binding sites of Methylphenidate with those of some Methylphenidate structural analogues, amphetamine, and cocaine. The results of previous work by this laboratory in a kinetic model of the actively transporting DAT have shown that amphetamine and m-tyramine bind to the same site on the DAT and at a site competitive with dopamine .Thus, it was shown that amphetamine and m-tyramine are substrate analogues for the DAT. It was shown that amphetamine binds at a site that is separate but interacting with the inhibitory site of cocaine on the DAT.

Different Methylphenidate derivatives have been synthesized in an attempt to develop compounds that will block cocaine binding to the DAT but do not interfere with substrate binding or transport. The test used for their assessment has been to compare the IC50 for inhibition of the transport of dopamine with the IC50 of the test analogue for the displacement of [3H] WIN 35,428 binding.

In this current study, amphetamine, cocaine, and selected structural analogues of Methylphenidate were used to decipher whether Methylphenidate resembles amphetamine or cocaine in its effects on the function of DAT. The Methylphenidate derivatives studied in this work were chosen for their particular characteristics. Compound 1, a dichloro-substituted derivative, is one of the more potent Methylphenidate derivatives with respect to inhibition of [3H] WIN 35,428 binding. It differs from most other Methylphenidate derivatives that have been synthesized in that  it is equipotent as an inhibitor of [3H]WIN 35,428 binding and [3H]DA uptake and  it also has an equilibrium Hill coefficient (nH) determined against [3H]WIN 35,428 binding of dopamine. Most of the other Methylphenidate analogues are at least threefold less potent as inhibitors of [3H] DA uptake and have nH values of unity. Compounds 2 and 3 were included because they are some of the most effective analogues in discriminating between [3H] WIN 35,428 binding and [3H] DA uptake, with a five- to sevenfold separation in potency to inhibit binding versus transport.

Finally, Dr. Dalal Akoury (MD) is an experienced doctor who has been in the frontline fighting drug addiction. He runs a website that equips readers of better ways to overcome not only drug addiction but also serious health problems that have caused nightmares to the world population. Get in touch with her today and learn more.

Phenethylamine Analogues Are Potentially Addictive

 

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Have Scientists Found a Molecule that Blocks Cocaine Addiction?

July 18, 2014

What is cocaine addiction?

cocaine addictionA person is considered to have cocaine addiction when he/she is faced with a psychological desire to use cocaine regularly. This is also referred to as a stated of cocaine dependency. The risk of being in this state is that, overdose of cocaine may result to cardiovascular and brain damage such as constriction of blood vessels in the brain, which may result to stroke and if the constriction occurs in the arteries in the heart, it may cause heart attack especially in the central nervous system.

The problem of cocaine related addiction has been on the rise, even though cocaine is an illegal drug almost in every part of the world. This alarming problem has prompted researches to try to curb the problem.

Have Scientists finally found a Molecule that Blocks Cocaine Addiction?

There has been some breakthrough in the search for the molecule that blocks the cocaine molecule, but the big question is, have the scientists really discovered a molecule that is capable of blocking the cocaine molecule? Or is it the beginning of the big discovery? This still debatable, but let’s look at what they have already achieved.

What scientist have already discovered

The recent researches reports show that scientist have been able to identify a molecule that they claim can block the cocaine molecule. This molecule is known as CGP3466B. In the recent study, this molecule was able to block cocaine addiction in mice. Does the molecule then block the cocaine molecules in human? Scientists have been testing the molecule or the compound CGP3466B on humans for the treatment of Parkson’s disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, but unfortunately it didn’t work. Fortunately, the researchers were able to know the pathway that cocaine works on, and knew CGP3466B was able to block that specific pathway.

How was the research conducted?

The study used mice, by giving them choice to choose two rooms for visiting freely. One of these rooms occasionally dispensed cocaine while the other didn’t. The point of interest was to let the mice eat the cocaine, until a point when they would be addicted. The mice were considered addicted when they remained in the cocaine dispensed room without bothering going to the other room. The addicted mice then received the CGP3466B dose. Let’s now see what the scientists observed after giving the addicted mice the CGP3466B molecule dose. The scientists found that the addicted mice resumed their normal time schedules by spending equal time in both rooms. This was a clear indication that they were no longer addicted.

The most exciting part is on how this drug works. This dose works at very low doses, and it looks to have no possibility of any side effect, since it works by blocking specific pathways and not affecting any other part. This study on CGP3466B was very vital since it helped in the confirmation of the details of cocaine’s action and potential treatment options.

How will you identify somebody addicted with cocaine?

Cocaine is one of the drugs which causes very powerful effects by acting upon the brain. The most common symptoms of addiction are:-

  • Loss of sense of smell
  • Increased libido
  • Isolation from friends and family members
  • Lying about drug use
  • Depression after long period of abuse
  • Feeling of superiority where one feels above the others
  • Mood swings
  • Increased energy and alertness
  • Engagement in risky sex
  • Violent behaviors
  • Damage in nasal passage
  • Dilated pupils
  • Vasoconstriction of blood vessels in the heart.
  • Chronic runny nose

It is important to note that some of these symptoms are similar to those shown by addiction from other substances, and you may not be able to conclude at once that a given person is addicted of cocaine because a given behavior like violence has been depicted. It could be addiction from marijuana, or even another factor not related to addiction. Just like with any other type of addiction, try to assemble sufficient evidence grounds for conclusion on addiction.

cocaine addiction

Effects of Cocaine Addiction to our bodies?

This is actually a knowledge that every person should have. The dangers of using cocaine are deadly. This is one of the worst illegal drug substances which despite their threat to healthy living many people are still abusing them. Let’s look at the dangers of cocaine abuse;

  • Cocaine is known to cause heart attack
  • It may lead to permanent damage of lungs
  • It may cause ulcers
  • It is also reported to cause decrease in sexual activity
  • It causes serious skin infections and abscesses
  • Perforation of the stomach is also a common problem
  • It also causes perforation of nasal activity
  • Seizures are also common when one is an addict of cocaine.
  • Strokes due to the blockage of blood vessels in the heart are also a threat.
  • Also something that is worth mentioning is that cocaine abuse can lead to death if un-attended in time.

Looking at all these effects of abusing cocaine, and when you turn to every corner of the world people are abusing this drug, every human being will always pray that the scientists researches on the treatment of this killer disease be successful. This is the only thing that will save the world but not illegalizing the drug.

Have Scientists Found a Molecule that Blocks Cocaine Addiction?

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Effects of Crack Cocaine

July 14, 2014

Effects of Crack Cocaine-Drug Addiction

Cocaine

Crack cocaine addiction, it does not matter how you take it the bottom line is that it is death in waiting. Good news is that you can stop it.

It is everybody’s wish to be healthy and remain so in their whole life time. This desire is always under attack from all directions by all manner of things. Drug addiction is one of the most dreaded conditions that reverse the live healthy wish. In an attempt to trying to unlocking the this we have chosen to use this link to post informatory addiction articles to educate the public of the dangers involve in life if one associate with drugs. There are so many drugs being abused today however for the purpose of our discussion we will zero into cocaine and revel how it affect the addicted individuals and the general public. Our discussion will be in broken in two segments that is:

i.        Short term effects

ii.        Long term effects

Short term effects of crack cocaine

  • Crack cocaine will temporarily lift your spirit as an addict but this feeling when the concentration dies off in your blood stream the addict experiences extreme depression and craves for more of the substance.
  • Individuals addicted to crack cocaine normally skip meals and often don’t have enough sleep.
  • They also experience high heart rate, muscle spasms, convulsion etc.
  • This dug can make users feel obsessed, irritated, unfriendly and nervous even when they are not high.
  • The risks of experiencing heart attack, suffer stroke, seizure or respiratory failure are systematic with crack cocaine users irrespective of quantity used. These can be very fatal killing the individual.
  • Smoking crack further presents a series of health risks. Crack is often mixed with other substances that create toxic fumes when burned. As crack smoke does not remain potent for long, crack pipes are generally very short. This often causes cracked and blistered lips, known as “crack lip,” from users having a very hot pipe pressed against their lips.

Long term effects of crack cocaine

Besides the common dangers related to cocaine use, addicts are likely to suffer respiratory complications, alongside coughing, shortness of breath bleeding and lung damage.

Long-term effects from use of crack cocaine include:

  • It causes severe damage to the heart, liver and kidneys. Users are more likely to have infectious diseases.
  • Continued daily use causes sleep deprivation and loss of appetite, resulting in malnutrition.
  • Smoking crack cocaine also can cause aggressive and paranoid behavior.
  • Since crack cocaine also interferes with the way the brain processes chemicals, one needs large quantities of the drug just to feel “normal.”
  • Those who become addicted to crack cocaine lose interest in other areas of life.
  • Crack cocaine causes depression and when this becomes intensified, the addict can do anything to get the supply. They can be very extreme even to the point of committing murder. If for whatever reason the supply is not fourth coming, depression can drive the addict to the wall of suicide.

Physical and Mental effects- Short term

Because it is smoked, the short term effects of crack cocaine are more immediate and more intense than that of powdered cocaine as discussed below:

  • Loss of appetite
  • Increased heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature
  • Contracted blood vessels
  • Increased rate of breathing
  • Dilated pupils
  • Disturbed sleep patterns
  • Nausea
  • Hyperstimulation
  • Bizarre, erratic, sometimes violent behavior
  • Hallucinations, hyperexcitability, irritability
  • Tactile hallucination that creates the illusion of bugs burrowing under the skin
  • Intense euphoria
  • Anxiety and paranoia
  • Depression
  • Intense drug craving
  • Panic and psychosis
  • Convulsions, seizures and sudden death from high doses (even one time)
Physical and mental effects-Long term effects
  • Permanent damage to blood vessels of ear and brain, high blood pressure, leading to heart attacks, strokes and death
  • Liver, kidney and lung damage
  • Severe chest pains
  • Respiratory failure
  • Infectious diseases and abscesses if injected
  • Malnutrition, weight loss
  • Severe tooth decay
  • Auditory and tactile hallucinations
  • Sexual problems, reproductive damage and infertility (for both men and women)
  • Disorientation, apathy, confused exhaustion
  • Irritability and mood disturbances
  • Increased frequency of risky behavior
  • Delirium or psychosis
  • Severe depression
  • Tolerance and addiction (even after just one use)
Effects on the young Children

It is so painful that very innocent babies in their mother’s wombs become victims of cocaine. When pregnant women uses cocaine in whichever form the mother and the unborn child will all be in danger. This may increase the risk of losing the pregnancy especially in the early stages of the pregnancy. The consequences of cocaine use by pregnant women may result in the unborn baby suffers stroke, heart attack or have permanent brain damage.

Drug dealers/supplies

Research has established that most young people in drugs today got into it because of pressure from their friends. They wanted to belong, feeling cool and famous. These pressures from friends are known by the supplies and they will use this as your weak point to lure you into drugs because they are only motivated by their need of making money. You must be careful with the drug dealers because all they care about is money, money and more money. They care less if the drugs ruin your life as long as they get money.

The truth you need to know

To help you be safe you must get to know the facts at fingertip so that you do not fall prey to these heartless drug dealers.

 

  • You must distance yourself from drugs by all means.
  • Drugs are basically poisons. The quantity taken determines the damage caused.
  • A small amount acts as a stimulant (speeds you up).
  • A greater amount acts as a sedative (slows you down).
  • An even larger amount poisons and can kill.

This is true of all drugs. Only the quantity needed to achieve the effect differs nonetheless many drugs have other liabilities like: they affect the mind directly distorting the user’s perception of what is happening around them and as a result, the person’s actions may be odd, irrational, inappropriate and even destructive.

Drugs block off all sensations, the desirable ones with the unwanted. So, while providing short-term help in the relief of pain, they also wipe out ability and alertness and muddy one’s thinking.

Finally all the medicines we use are drugs whose objective is to correct something about the way your body is working with a view of trying to making it work better. These drugs are sometimes necessary but all the same they are still drugs: they act as stimulants or sedatives, and too much can kill you. So if you do not use medicines as they are supposed to be used, they can be as dangerous as illegal drugs. Therefore you must ensure that you are always seeking guidance from the experts to avoid doing wrong things. At AWAREmed Health and Wellness Resource Center under Doctor Akoury’s care you will get all the information and guidance you need and you will also be attended to by a team of experts who will focus on Neuroendocrine Restoration (NER) to reinstate normality through realization of the oneness of Spirit, Mind, and Body, Unifying the threesome into ONE.

Effects of Crack Cocaine-Drug Addiction

 

 

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Major effects of Addiction

June 9, 2014

Major effects of Addiction-Psychological and Physical

Addiction

Don’t let drug addiction break your family. The effects can be very painful not just for you but to the children as well.

Like many problems people go through addiction is one that has been associated to humanity for as long as you can imagine. It is interesting to note that addiction has no limit on whom it affects and does not choose when to strike. Anytime can be said to be appropriate for one to be addicted to anything that is addictive, because of this untimeliness of addiction we must make efforts to be ready when it comes and most importantly prevent its effects on us. We will be discussing the major effects of addiction in this article and for this reason we will categorize then into two segments:

  • Psychological effects of drug addiction
  • Physical effects of drug addiction

Major effects of Addiction-Psychological effects of drug addiction

While it is true that in both cases the specific physical and psychological effects of drug abuse and addiction is not consistent and varies based on the particular addictive substance involved, the general effects of drug abuse or addiction to any drug can be devastating.

Psychologically, intoxication with or withdrawal from a substance can cause everything from euphoria as with alcohol, Ecstasy, or inhalant intoxication, to paranoia with marijuana or steroid intoxication, to severe depression or suicidal thoughts with cocaine or amphetamine withdrawal. An individual who has been living with a condition of drug addiction for some period of time may begin to experience a number of serious psychological problems as a result of their dependence on the drugs. As mention these conditions can range from mild to serious but the common denominator is that all of them will impact to the life of the addicted person in a negative manner. Let us now take a look at some of the most common long-term psychological effects of drug addictions as mention above:

Depression

As an individual develops a tolerance to drugs, it will take ever-increasing amounts of the substance to get high. When the individual is unable to achieve their desired state of euphoria, they may become depressed. Chronic depression also occurs as the drug addict feels shame and remorse about their condition. This creates a cycle of addiction; the more depressed they feel, the more likely they are to continue using drugs.

Paranoia

People suffering from a cocaine or marijuana addiction often report a feeling of paranoia over the course of their dependence. The feeling that “everyone is out to get them” is heightened by the fact that buying or using drugs is illegal and the belief that law enforcement is waiting around every corner. Over time, drug addicts tend to get more and more paranoid.

Anxiety

Drug addicts get their supply from time to time and the waiting period of the next dose of supply causes many of the addicts to begin feeling anxious or unsettled. During this moment of anxiety it will be noticeable to the society that these people have a problem and do not stay focus to their activities. When one is not focused a lot of people are affected for instance the family members will feel neglected. The negative effects on their relationship can be very devastating because it can break a family. Besides this drug induced anxieties and lack of focus can cause them to fail in their employment responsibilities and become less productive which can cause them to lose their source of livelihood. The effects of anxiety can be many and these are just but a few.

Major effects of Addiction-Physical effects of Drug addiction

In terms of effects on the body, intoxication with a substance can cause physical effects that range from marked sleepiness and slowed breathing as with intoxication with heroin or sedative hypnotic drugs, to the rapid heart rate of cocaine intoxication, or the tremors to seizures of alcohol withdrawal. In addition to the numerous mental health issues that spring up as a result of long-term drug addiction, there are also a number of issues affecting the physical health of the person who is has been living with a dependence problem for many years. Some of the known physical effects include:

The kidneys

The human kidney can be damaged by habitual drug use over a period of time. Several studies have established that kidney failure is very much associated with long-time of drug abuse. Users of crystal meth, heroin and other dangerous drugs are a common testimony of this.

The liver

Liver failure is a well-known consequence of alcoholism but it can also be triggered by other substances like using vicodin and OxyContin over a period of time possibly years.

The heart

Drug addicts and in particular Cocaine addicts and stimulant users are doing causing damage to their heart each time they use these drugs. The most common conditions among drug addicts are heart disease and heart failure.

The lungs

Any individual who smokes the drug to which they are addicted is putting the proper functionality of their lungs in jeopardy. Smoking crack cocaine or crystal meth causes great damages to the lungs with a ferocity that rivals or resembles long-term nicotine habits. Besides all these regular use of marijuana also causes damage to the lungs. When one uses drugs over a long period of time they not only become drug addicts but will also begin to build a tolerance to drugs they use. Tolerance is dangerous as it causes the individual to use more and more of the drug in order to achieve the desired euphoric or stimulated state. This puts the individual at a constant risk for overdose and even death.

Major effects of Addiction-Conclusion

In conclusion we are privileged to live this life and we can only do so once. What you do with your life can either make you see many years ahead or shorten them. You need not to be in dilemma on this there is help around you and all you need is to get in touch with doctor Dalal Akoury who is an expert in addiction and has helped many people globally over the past decades is also the founder of AWAREmed Health and Wellness Resource Center where addiction and obesity are treated in a friendly way by focusing on Neuroendocrine Restoration (NER) to reinstate normality through realization of the oneness of Spirit, Mind, and Body, Unifying the threesome into ONE. This is what you need my dear reader like I said we live this life only once take that step and call and live life to the fullest.

Major effects of Addiction-Psychological and Physical

 

 

 

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The brain exposed to stimulants abuse causes addiction

April 10, 2014

The brain exposed to stimulants abuse causes addiction-How it happens

stimulant

It doesn’t have to go this far addiction can be eradicated if you avoid substance abuse, be it stimulant or otherwise.

Over the last several decades, research on substances of abuse has vastly improved our understanding of human behavior and physiology and the nature of substance abuse and dependence. Basic neurobiological research has enhanced our understanding of the biological and genetic causes of addiction. These discoveries have helped establish addiction as a biological brain disease that is chronic and relapsing in nature. By mapping the neural pathways of pleasure and pain through the human brain, investigators are beginning to understand how abused psychoactive substances, including stimulants, interact with various cells and chemicals in the brain.

For the purpose of this article I will tell you the effects of cocaine and methamphetamine (MA) use, have on the user’s brain and behavior, which in turn leads to the stimulant user’s unique needs. Understanding these effects provides the foundation for stimulant-specific treatment approaches and gives treatment providers greater insight into stimulant users and why certain treatment approaches are more effective.

The brain exposed to stimulants abuse causes addiction-Stimulant Abuse and the Brain

The fundamental problem in dealing with any substance of abuse is to understand “the target” (the user). Therefore, to understand why people take drugs such as cocaine and MA and why some people become addicted, we must first understand what these drugs are doing to their target; that is to say, how stimulants affect the user.

Proper engagement of substance abuse and dependence often involve some discussion of the root causes–the societal and risk factors that lead to these conditions. To date, investigators have identified as many as 72 risk factors for substance use and dependence. Among them are poverty, racism, social dysfunction, weak families, poor education, poor upbringing, and substance-abusing peer groups. These risk factors–as well as other environmental and genetic factors–only influence an individual’s initial decision to use substances of abuse. But after initial use, an individual continues to use a substance because she likes its effects: Use modifies mood, perception, and emotional state. All of these effects are modulated through the brain; basic understanding of neuroscience will help us understand this phenomenon.

For substances of abuse to exert their effects, they must first get to the brain. The four most common routes of administering psychoactive (mood-changing) substances are:

Oral consumption (i.e., swallowing)

A swallowed substance goes to the stomach and on to the intestinal tract. Some substances easily pass through the digestive tract into the bloodstream. Other substances are broken down into their chemical components (i.e., metabolized) in the digestive system, thereby destroying the substance.

Intranasal consumption (i.e., snorting)

Inhalation into the lungs (generally by smoking)

Substances that are inhaled into the lungs adhere to the lining of the nasal passages (the nasal mucosa) through which they enter directly into the bloodstream. Inhaled substances are usually first changed into a gaseous form by igniting (e.g., marijuana) or volatilizing by intense heat (e.g., crack cocaine, the ice form of MA). The lungs offer a large surface area through which the gaseous form may quickly pass directly into the bloodstream.

The brain exposed to stimulants abuse causes addiction-Intravenously via hypodermic syringe

Injected substances obviously enter the bloodstream directly, although at a somewhat regulated rate. In these last three routes of administration, substances enter the bloodstream in none metabolized form.

Once a substance enters the bloodstream, it is transported throughout the body to various organs and organ systems, including the brain. Substances that enter the liver may be metabolized there. Substances that enter the kidney may be excreted. If a female substance user is pregnant, and the substance is able to cross the placenta, then the substance will enter the fetus’ bloodstream. Nursing babies may ingest some substances from breast milk.

To enter the brain, a substance’s molecules must first get through its chemical protection system, which consists mainly of the blood-brain barrier. Tight cell-wall junctions and a layer of cells around the blood vessels keep large or electrically charged molecules from entering the brain. However, small neutral molecules like those of cocaine and MA easily pass through the blood-brain barrier and enter the brain. Once inside the brain, substances of abuse begin to exert their psychoactive effects.

The brain exposed to stimulants abuse causes addiction-The Nervous System

The human nervous system is an elaborately wired communication system, and the brain is the control center. The brain processes sensory information from throughout the body, guides muscle movement and locomotion, regulates a multitude of bodily functions, forms thoughts and feelings, modulates perception and moods, and essentially controls all behavior.

The brain is organized into lobes, which are responsible for specialized functions like cognitive and sensory processes and motor coordination. These lobes are made up of far more complex units called circuits, which involve direct connections among the billions of specialized cells that the various substances of abuse may affect.

The fundamental functional unit of the brain’s circuits is a specialized cell called a neuron, which conveys information both electrically and chemically. The function of the neuron is to transmit information: It receives signals from other neurons, integrates and interprets these signals, and in turn, transmits signals on to other, adjacent neurons.

The brain exposed to stimulants abuse causes addiction-The Limbic Reward System

The brain circuit that is considered essential to the neurological reinforcement system is called the limbic reward system (also called the dopamine reward system or the brain reward system). This neural circuit spans between the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and the nucleus accumbens. Every substance of abuse–alcohol, cocaine, MA, heroin, marijuana and nicotine–has some effect on the limbic reward system. Substances of abuse also affect the nucleus accumbens by increasing the release of the neurotransmitter dopamine, which helps to regulate the feelings of pleasure (euphoria and satisfaction).

Dopamine also plays an important role in the control of movement, cognition, motivation, and reward. High levels of free dopamine in the brain generally enhance mood and increase body movement but too much dopamine may produce nervousness, irritability, aggressiveness, and paranoia that approximates schizophrenia, as well as the hallucinations and bizarre thoughts of schizophrenia. While too little dopamine in certain areas of the brain results in the tremors and paralysis of Parkinson’s disease.

Natural activities such as eating, drinking, and sex activate the nucleus accumbens, inducing considerable communication among this structure’s neurons. This internal communication leads to the release of dopamine. The released dopamine produces immediate, but ephemeral, feelings of pleasure and elation. As dopamine levels subside, so do the feelings of pleasure. But if the activity is repeated, then dopamine is again released, and more feelings of pleasure and euphoria are produced. The release of dopamine and the resulting pleasurable feelings positively reinforce such activities in both humans and animals and motivate the repetition of these activities.

Dopamine is believed to play an important role in the reinforcement of and motivation for repetitive actions and there is an increasing amount of scientific evidence suggesting that the limbic reward system and levels of free dopamine provide the common link in the abuse and addiction of all substances. Dopamine has even been labeled “the master molecule of addiction.”

The brain exposed to stimulants abuse causes addiction-How it happens

 

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