Neurotransmitters-General Psychology

the first neurotransmitter was discovered in early 1920s several others have since been discovered

Neurotransmitters are the chemicals which allow the transmission of signals from one neuron to the next across synapses. They are also found at the axon endings of motor neurons, where they stimulate the muscle fibers. Normally they together with their close relatives are produced by some glands such as the pituitary and the adrenal glands. For a couple of articles in the coming days I will dwell much about NAD being a neurotransmitter and it other functions. I would therefore want to kindly have you on board as we dig into this interesting topic, stay tuned and let us learn together, but for the purpose of article, I want us to byway of introduction review some of the most significant neurotransmitters we have as a basis of understanding ware we are heading to.

Neurotransmitters-Acetylcholine

This is one of the first neurotransmitter to be discovered in early ninety’s.  In 1921 it was isolated by a Nobel laurite German biologist called Otto Loewi for his work.  Some of its functions are;

• It is responsible for much of the stimulation of muscles, including the muscles of the gastro-intestinal system.
• It is also found in sensory neurons and in the autonomic nervous system, and has a part in scheduling REM (dream) sleep.

The plant poisons curare and hemlock cause paralysis by blocking the acetylcholine receptor sites of muscle cells.  The well-known poison botulin works by preventing the vesicles in the axon ending from releasing acetylcholine, causing paralysis.  The botulin derivative botox is used by many people to temporarily eliminate wrinkles. On a more serious note, there is a link between acetylcholine and Alzheimer’s disease:  There is something on the order of a 90% loss of acetylcholine in the brains of people suffering from Alzheimer’s, which is a major cause of senility.

Neurotransmitters–Norepinephrine

This was discovered by a Swedish biologist named Ulf von Euler in 1946 by then it was called Noradrenalin.  Ulf also won a Nobel Prize.

• Norepinephrine is strongly associated with bringing our nervous systems into “high alert.”
• It is prevalent in the sympathetic nervous system, and it increases our heart rate and our blood pressure.
• Our adrenal glands release it into the blood stream, along with its close relative epinephrine (aka adrenalin).
• It is also important for forming memories.

Neurotransmitters-Dopamine

It is an inhibitory neurotransmitter, meaning that when it finds its way to its receptor sites, it blocks the tendency of that neuron to fire. It was discovered in 1950s by another Swede called Arvi Carlsson. Dopamine is strongly associated with reward mechanisms in the brain.  Drugs like cocaine, opium, heroin, and alcohol increase the levels of dopamine, as doe’s nicotine.  If it feels good, dopamine neurons are probably involved!

• The severe mental illness schizophrenia has been shown to involve excessive amounts of dopamine in the frontal lobes, and drugs that block dopamine are used to help schizophrenics.
• On the other hand, too little dopamine in the motor areas of the brain are responsible for Parkinson’s disease, which involves uncontrollable muscle tremors.
• It was Arvid Carlsson mentioned above who figured out that the precursor to dopamine (called L-dopa) could elevate some of the symptoms of Parkinson’s. This would latter in 2000 see him being awarded the Nobel Prize.
• Recently, it has been noted that low dopamine may related not only to the unsociability of schizophrenics, but also to social anxiety.
• On the other hand, dopamine has been found to have relatively little to do with the pleasures of eating.

Neurotransmitters-GABA

Eugene Roberts and J. Awapara jointly discovered GABA (gamma amino-butyric acid) in 1950, which is also usually an inhibitory neurotransmitter.

• GABA acts like a brake to the excitatory neurotransmitters that lead to anxiety.
• People with too little GABA tend to suffer from anxiety disorders, and drugs like Valium work by enhancing the effects of GABA.
• Lots of other drugs influence GABA receptors, including alcohol and barbiturates.
• Luck of GABA in certain parts of the brain, results in epilepsy.

Neurotransmitters–Glutamate

It is an excitatory relative of GABA which is the most common neurotransmitter in the central nervous system as much as half of all neurons in the brain and is especially important in regards to memory.  Curiously, glutamate is actually toxic to neurons, and anything in excess will kill them.  Sometimes brain damage or a stroke will lead to an excess and end with many more brain cells dying than from the original trauma. ALS also known as Lou Gehrig disease comes as a result of excessive glutamate production. Many researchers believe it may be responsible for quite a variety of diseases of the nervous system, and are now looking for ways to minimize its effects

It was discovered 1907 by Kikunae Ikeda of Tokay Imperial Univ. while looking for the flavor common to things like cheese, meat, and mushrooms.  He was able to extract an acid from seaweed glutamate.  He went on to invent the well known seasoning MSG monosodium glutamate.  It took decades for Peter Usherwood to identify glutamate as a neurotransmitter (in locusts) in 1994.

Neurotransmitters–Serotonin

Serotonin is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that has been found to be intimately involved in emotion and mood. For instance:

• Too little serotonin has been shown to lead to depression, problems with anger control, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and suicide.
• Too little also leads to an increased appetite for carbohydrates (starchy foods) and trouble sleeping, which are also associated with depression and other emotional disorders.
• It has also been tied to migraines, irritable bowel syndrome, and fibromyalgia.

Neurotransmitters-Endorphin

In 1973, Solomon Snyder and Candace Pert of Johns Hopkins discovered endorphin.  Endorphin is short for “endogenous morphine.”  It is structurally very similar to the opioids (opium, morphine, heroin, etc.) and has similar functions:  Inhibitory, it is involved in pain reduction and pleasure, and the opioid drugs work by attaching to endorphin’s receptor sites.  It is also the neurotransmitter that allows bears and other animals to hibernate.  Consider:  Heroin slows heart-rate, respiration, and metabolism in general – exactly what you would need to hibernate.  Of course, sometimes heroin slows it all down to nothing:  Permanent hibernation.

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Neurotransmitters-Psychology of neurotransmitters