Category Archives: addiction

The Prefrontal Cortex and It’s Executive Control In Addiction

September 20, 2014

Role of the prefrontal cortex and executive control in addiction

prefrontal cortexThe prefrontal cortex is the part of the brain that is the cerebral cortex, which covers the front part frontal lobe. PFC’s most typical psychological term for its functions is executive function. The prefrontal cortex has been associated with a person’s personality by more than one scientist. It is associated with decision making, planning complex cognitive behavior, expressing ones personality as well as controlling and moderating social behaviors. Decision making is a process that is carried out in the brain through the interaction of the prefrontal cortex and the subcortical regions involved in reward and motivation. As a result, it is common that failure in self-regulatory behavior, common in addicted subjects, could be dependent upon the alteration of the interactions between the prefrontal cortex and the subcortical regions.

The PFC has plays a great role in regulating and governing behavior. This function is achieved through a complex interaction of different areas within the prefrontal cortex together with the subcortical areas integrating cognitive and executive functions to produce the “optimal choice”. The result of this interaction can also result in dangerous decisions some of which are observed in drug addicts. The PFC functional abnormalities are very much attributed to the continued use of drugs or traumatic experiences. PFC plays a role in the onset and in the progression of psychiatric disorders associated with very poor decision making such as schizophrenia, attention deficit or the hyperactivity disorder, and depression all of which are very likely to be suffered by drug addicts after a prolonged period of drug and substance abuse.

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that helps control the brains reward and pleasure areas as well as regulating movement and emotional responses. Dopamine enables us to not only see the reward but to also take actions to move towards them. Addictive drugs such as cocaine, marijuana and nicotine cause an excess of dopamine in the brain. According to scientific theories, dopamine is released in the brain when something very important happens, whether that is an expected reward or an accident. Since it is involved in learning, memory and motivation, the chemical dopamine helps us to store the important information we need to survive as well as to remember it in the future. Drugs however hijack that process sending five to ten times more dopamine surging through the nucleus accumbens and forcing the brains motivational and attention mechanisms to focus purely on the drug. The drug therefore becomes the most important thing in the world which leads to addiction.

Improved performance  in cognitive tasks requiring working memory and inhibition have been observed in people that carry variations in the catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) gene which degrade the catecholamine neurotransmitters dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine. As a result, when the role of COMT is altered, there could be increased likelihood of making the drug addiction even stronger. Addiction is therefore as a result of a number of factors and the PFC circuitry contributes to the expression of several behaviors that are associated with it. A large number of addicted people do not seek treatment, mostly because they do not even recognize their condition as a disease that requires a medical attention. This condition is probably brought about by viewing the abused substance as an essential ingredient of their life regardless of the consequences of its use.

Imbalance between two separate but interacting neural systems can lead to addiction. These neural systems could be an immediate one that generates decision making, based on the impulsivity-related amygdala system for transmitting pain or pleasure of the immediate prospects and a reflective one, whose basis are for the signaling pain or pleasure of future prospects. The level of controlling behavior is challenged by the ability of cues associated with strengthening activities such as drug abuse, food or sex. Self-control efforts however involve increased activity in the regions of the PFC regulating emotions and cognition and reduced activity in the regions that are associated with reward processing and craving. PFC could be associated with long term outcomes whereas sub-cortical activity is associated with more immediate outcomes.

The PFC is also responsible for the decision to quit taking a certain drug after a period of addiction. Abstinence is a multiple component condition in which the lack of drug effects is highly associated with the inner struggle between the desire of the reward brought about by intake of the drug and the assessment of the consequences of that behavior in terms of money, social life and environmental involvement for example smoking marijuana. This will very fast lead to appearance of withdrawal syndrome that is characterized by depressed mood, irritability, mild cognitive deficits accompanied by other peripheral psychological symptoms as the PFC tries to adjust. Some addicts who struggle to go through the abstinence of a certain drug at times relapse to their old habits. This relapse can be categorized into three major types which are; drug induced relapse, reinstatement of self-administration behavior upon exposition to drug related cues and stress induced relapse. This is a major setback in the recovery of the addicts.

prefrontal cortex/

Research has shown that addicts of strong drugs such as marijuana or cocaine have more problems in their daily lives both physically as well as emotionally. Their health is also very much at risk as this drugs alter the working mechanism of the brain and especially the prefrontal cortex. They report lower life satisfaction, poorer mental and physical health, more relationship problems, and they also have less academic and career success compared to those who do not abuse drugs. Decision making becomes a problem for them and they tend to choose the easy way out which to them is the choice to keep using the drugs. Eventually, they could lose their mind all together as the brain function mechanism gets more and more accustomed to the drug effects.

Role of the prefrontal cortex and executive control in addiction

 

Related articles
Facebooktwitterpinterestlinkedin

The Symptoms and Treatment of Chlamydia

September 20, 2014

Chlamydia: Symptoms, Effects and Treatment

Chlamydia is one of the most common types of sexually transmitted diseases affecting people leading active sexual lifestyles. There are several reasons that make the disease quite common. To begin with, the disease has got little or no symptoms at all. To many people, the disease may completely fail to show symptoms and only manifest itself later in the form of effects. The second factor is that Chlamydia, which is a bacterial disease, may be easily transmitted during oral or vaginal intercourse. These two factors; the fact that the disease may not show symptoms in some people and that it can be spread even by means of oral sex; make Chlamydia a very common sexually transmitted disease.

Symptoms of Chlamydia in women 

Although it has been stated that for many people, the disease does not show its symptoms, it is important to understand that the disease, like any other disease, does have specific symptoms. The only unique thing about it is that even to those that experience its symptoms, this usually happens long after they have contracted the disease. The long period between the time of actual contraction and appearance of symptoms creates ideal conditions for increased transmission of the disease.

There are several symptoms that one may experience after contracting the disease. Furthermore, it has been known that women generally experience symptoms that are completely different from those experienced by men. Here is a brief outline of some of the most common symptoms that some women who have contracted Chlamydia may show after some time.

The first common symptom of Chlamydia in women is manifested in the virginal discharge. Although it is common for women to have vaginal discharge, depending on several other factors, its color, smell and frequency of occurrence really matters. When a woman experiences a sudden and excessive bout of vaginal discharge, this is definitely a sign of a serious infection. In such a case, the woman should see the doctor immediately so that tests can be done and treatment given immediately.

For women who have contracted the disease, there is a gradual change in the discharge from the vagina. To most women, the discharge changes in color and occurs suddenly. The discharge, which is usually white or creamy in color, is a result of the disease-causing bacteria affecting the cervix. Therefore, such a discharge in women is an abnormal sign which may directly point to infection by Chlamydia.

The second symptom of Chlamydia in women is manifested in the form of a burning sensation when one is passing out urine. In general, many sexually transmitted diseases do cause this symptom in women. Therefore, when a women is having a burning sensation when urinating, other sexually transmitted diseases cannot be ruled out. The burning sensation in women is a result of the disease-causing microorganisms invading the urethra where they cause an infection. The burning sensation may be accompanied by an increasing urge to urinate all the time. All these are sure symptoms that one has been infected by Chlamydia and therefore, when one sees them, she should see a doctor immediately.

The third symptom of Chlamydia in women is seen in the form of pain during sexual intercourse. Usually, a woman who has been inflected by Chlamydia will experience pain either during or immediately after sex. For most women, the pain is accompanied with bleeding. These two symptoms, pain and bleeding during or immediately after sexual intercourse, are a result of the effect that the bacteria that cause the disease have on the cervix and even fallopian tubes of an infected woman. Therefore, when an otherwise normal woman experiences pain during intercourse, which may be accompanied by bleeding, she should seek medical attention immediately.

The fourth symptom of the disease in women is that they experience pain in the lower abdomen. Many women who have been infected by the disease experience pain either at the abdomen, the lower back or even in the rectum. Pain in the general hip area may be accompanied by usual sins of fever and a frequent feeling of being nauseated. Although lower abdominal or back pain may not be a clear symptom of the disease, its occurrence in conjunction with the other symptoms that have already been discussed should be taken as a manifestation of the Chlamydia in women.

Effects of Chlamydia in men and women

Chlamydia DiseaseChlamydia has several destructive effects on women, that is, if it is left untreated for a long period of time. One of the most serious effects of the disease on women is blocking of the fallopian tubes which automatically leads to infertility. This happens as a result of the bacteria invading and affecting the tubes over the course of time. Another serious effect of the disease on women is manifested during pregnancy. Expectant women who contract the disease can easily pass it over to their unborn babies. This leads to the babies developing different kinds of complications like blindness.

Further, if left untreated for long, Chlamydia causes considerable damage to the pelvis. It is the destructive nature of the disease causing bacteria that leads to a lot of the symptoms discussed before. And when this is left unattended to, it may lead to a number of complications in the form of difficulties in one’s sexual life. More often than not, this translates to difficulties in getting pregnant.

For men, the most common effect of the disease is seen in its effect on the two important parts of the male reproductive system: the urethra and epididymis. Prolonged periods of infection lead to complications that affect the urethra and epididymis.  Also, men who contact the disease and fail to get treatment may experience serious infection of the rectum over the course of time.

Since these are serious effects whose treatment may take much longer and cost more, it is wise for one to get treatment the moment the initial symptoms of Chlamydia are seen. Further, it is good practice for one to get tested for Chlamydia at least once a year. This practice, which can be done in any suitable healthcare center like AWARE med, is a good precautionary measure.

Chlamydia: Symptoms, Effects and Treatment

Related articles

Facebooktwitterpinterestlinkedin

Effects of Alcohol on Human Body Systems

September 20, 2014

Effects of Alcohol on Human Body

Alcohol is a commonly used depressant drug. When ingested, it affects the entire body system in various ways. We shall examine how the reproductive and cardiovascular systems are affected amongst others.

Cardiovascular System and Alcohol

  • Increased HDL

The presence of alcohol in the bloodstream results in higher levels of high density lipo-proteins. These valuable molecules are responsible for moping up fats and low density lipo-proteins from the bloodstream. Critical function is aided as alcohol actually increases the transport rates of apolipoproteins A-1 and A-11. This results in more efficiency in the manufacture of HDL and results in its abundance.

  • Dilated cardiomyopathy

Abusing alcohol over a long time can weaken the heart muscle. Cardiac muscle activity is inhibited by alcohol. Continued abuse causes free radical damage and prevents protein synthesis. The effect of this behaviour is a weakening the heart walls and thereby causing dilated cardiomyopathy. Symptoms include waking up to urinate at night, having heart palpitations and feeling uncharacteristically weak among others.  It is very dangerous and can lead to complete heart failure and affect other major organs.

Effects of Alcohol

Overconsumption of alcohol can put the body under stress. The body goes into fight or flight mode, releasing hormone cortisol. This causes non-critical body functions to slow or shut-down. It also causes arteries to constrict and increasing the pressure within the blood vessels.

  • Arrhythmia

As mentioned before, ethanol weakens the heart muscle. This can result in the heart beating too fast or with an irregular beat. Neither is good. If left to continue, they weaken the heart and increase the possibility of chronic cardiovascular diseases like heart attacks and strokes.

Reproductive System

  • Erectile Dysfunction

An erection starts with receiving and reacting to sexual stimuli. Alcohol interferes with many of the processes necessary to creating and sustaining an erection. A psychoactive drug, it may interfere with a person’s perception of what is desirable. It also interferes and slows with the nervous communication with the gametes. Constricted arteries and blood vessels prevent the rush of blood required to create and sustain an erection.

  • Hypogonadism

Alcohol is toxic to the gonads. It damages the endocrine system. Endocrine organs become less effeicient the longer alcohol is consumed and with excessive abuse, these organs shrink and atrophy.  In men the testes become less active.  Production of the main male sex hormone, testerstorone is impaired while in women, similar effects are experienced with oestrogen and the ovary.  This depressant drug also impairs the other sex organs that regulate sex hormone production. Hormone balance is disrupted in both men and women making it hard to maintain fertility.

  • Amennorehea/Infertility

Chonic and sustained alcohol use is related to infertility. The body, unable to maintain the delicate mix of hormonal balance, becomes unable to produce gametes. Ovarian function in a depressed state cannot maintain a regular monthly menstrual cycle where eggs mature and are released for fertilisation. Testes on the other hand do not produce the numbers and quality of sperm required for successful impregnation. Apermatozoa damaged by alcoholic overuse tend to be mis-shapen, have low motility or simply not many enough. All of the above are classic signs of male and female infertility that can be  by alcoholism.

  • Spontaneous Abortion

Alcoholic pregnant women may go through a spontaneous abortion. A body under alcohol-induced stress is unlikely to successfully bear a pregnancy to term. Most of the symptoms do indeed get worse – high blood pressure, impaired endocrine function etc. may all work to create an uninhabitable environment in a woman’s body. The growing and unmet, nutritional and organ support needs result in a spontaneous abortion.

Other Effects

Over prolonged abuse of the alcohol has been known to reduce the blood supply to skeletal tissue. As living bones are malnourished and unable to replenish the old worn out edges, they die and become brittle. Of course this effect can compounded by the loss of bone density as one grows significantly. The result is weak, fragile bones that are prone to breakage. The thigh bone is particularly prone to such damage often resulting in a condition known as avascular necrosis of femoral head.

  • Alcoholic myopathy

Muscle fibres of all kinds have their functions impaired by alcohol presence in the bloodstream. Fast twitching fibres are the first to be affected. Users may report a feeling of weakness and tiredness perfroming simple tasks. Over long periods, the slow – twitch fibres get affected and result in a general feeling of fatigue. The muscles perform at a fraction of their normal capacity for strength, flexibility etc.

Liver-Diseases

  • Fetal Alcoholic Syndrome

Babies who have ingested alcohol through the uterus may be born weighing a fraction of their normal counterparts. They are also low in meeting their developmental milestones for their age group. Activities such as talking, motor functions, holding their heads upright and saying their first words are more likely to be delayed in people born with this syndrome.

  • Avascular necrosis of femoral heads

Alcohol’s effect on the cardiovascular system: arythmia, high blood pressure and raising levels of good fats create a mixed picture. Perhaps the trick in balancing the risk/reward for heart health scale lies in moderation and never exceeding the recommended daily limits. In the endocrine system however, there are fewer redeeming effects of alcohol with fertility and related functions being the most affected.

Effects of Alcohol on Human Body

Related articles

Facebooktwitterpinterestlinkedin

Neural circuits of preoccupation/ anticipation “craving” stage

September 19, 2014

Addiction and It Stages

Drug addiction is a slow developing disorder that is long lasting characterized mainly by the urge to seek and take the drug, loss of control in limiting intake and development of a negative emotional state of anxiety and irritability. When the drug is prevented, the user exhibits withdrawal symptoms. Drug addiction has been viewed as a condition that involves element of both impulsive and compulsive behavior that is brought about by the addiction circle. The circle is made up of three stages: the intoxication stage the negative or the withdrawal effect, and the anticipation stage/ preoccupation which is the craving stage.

The neural circuits of the brain affected

Study on human behavior has revealed discrete circuits that play a major role in binding a major stage of the addiction circle. The ventral tegmental area and ventral striatum is the main focal point for the intoxication stage. The extended amygdala plays the role in the withdrawal while the  orbitofrontal cortex–dorsal striatum, prefrontal cortex, basolateral amygdala, hippocampus, and insula are involved in craving and the cingulate gyrus, dorsolateral prefrontal, and inferior frontal cortices in disrupted inhibitory control which is the preoccupation/anticipation stage. Drug addiction therefore alters the normal functioning of the neural circuits which may begin with changes in the mesolimbic doper mine system and the process of neural adaptations from the ventral striatum to dorsal striatum of the frontal cortex and eventually deregulates the prefrontal cortex and extended amygdala.

neural circuits

Of late there have been studies aimed at understanding the genetic cellular and molecular mechanisms that mediate the transitions from once-in-a-while drug use to the loss of a person’s control of a drug abuse and to the final stage of a relapse even after trying to abstain. Drug addiction has aspects of both impulsivity and compulsivity disorders. Impulse control disorder is precisely an increased sense of tension before engaging in an impulsive act and a feeling relieved at the time of committing the act. They are categorized as the positive and strengthening mechanisms. On the other hand compulsive disorders are characterized by anxiety and stress before taking part in a compulsive redundant behavior and relieve from the stress by carrying out the compulsive behavior. The compulsive disorders are greatly associated with negative reinforcement’s mechanisms.

Impulsivity and compulsivity.

As the stage of addiction moves from one cycle to the other, the user moves from a stage of impulsivity to a stage of impulsivity and compulsivity. As a result, they are no longer positively reinforced by the drug but negatively influenced. These three stages of addiction are attributed to interacting with each other getting more intense and finally leading to the pathological stage called addiction.  The brain neural circuitry system is engaged at each stage of the addiction cycle and changes with increased intake of the drugs of abuse hence producing the disorder known as addiction. Since the brain responds to stimulus the entire system becomes oriented specifically toward drug related stimuli leading to an increased drive for seeking and taking drugs.

Executive dysfunction

Executive dysfunction is a range of cognitive, emotional and behavioral difficulties which occur after the frontal lobe of the brain is injured. The executive function include abilities such as: planning and organization, social behavior, controlling emotions, safe awareness among others. Drug abuse alters the normal functioning of the frontal lobe of the brain and leads to executive dysfunction. This leads to deficits in cognitive skills which involves thinking, personality and social behavior. Executive dysfunction also makes it difficult to solve problems and as a result drug addicts do not make accurate judgments or find solutions if things are going wrong. They are also irritable find it hard to concentrate lose their r memory and do not get enough sleep. It is very hard for people with this this problem to get along with others as they appear antisocial and can be misunderstood as depression lack of motivation, selfishness and aggression.

Future treatment targets.

neural circuitsGABA receptor substance that does not act as agonist or antagonist but affects the gamma-amino butyric acid receptor-ionophore complex. The GABA receptors play a role in almost every single activity of the brain. Ultimately glutamate and GABA do the information processing; they’re the ones that encode sensory inputs and thoughts (GABA directly modulates the effect of glutamate). There is the cognitive enhancement which requires the knowledge of cognition and what it involves. This cognitive enhancement could be aimed at improving short-term memory, improving information processing improving recall, or enhancing long-term potentiation. Each of this involves different circuits that involve multiple neurotransmitter systems.

Homeostatic resetters refers to the process of removal of toxic substances from the body of an individual through a process called detoxification in that at the end of the process the body returns to homeostasis after a long term use of an addictive substance.

CRF is brain stress systems that is engaged during the withdrawal/negative affect stage. This will reduce the dopamine activity and also help in restoring the frontal lobe of the brain. Therefore, the CRF increases in the effects that occur with sudden withdrawal from drugs and have motivational significance not only for the anxiety effects of acute withdrawal but also for the increased drug intake associated with dependence.

Glutamate modulators are used to reduce the habits of addiction by greatly improving the mood of the user and treating major depressive disorder. Glutamate is the most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain. There has been studies carried out which have shown altered glutamate levels in serum and cerebrospinal fluid from patients with mood disorders. Administering glutamate to this patients will therefore greatly improve their mood.

Neural Circuits Of Preoccupation/ Anticipation “Craving” Stage

Related articles

Facebooktwitterpinterestlinkedin

Marijuana Smoker’s Processing Emotional Information In The Amygdala

September 19, 2014

Marijuana Smokers Process Emotional Information Differently In The Amygdala

Marijuana refers to the dried leaves, flowers, stems and seeds from the hemp plant Cannabis sativa. It contains the psychoactive which results in mind-altering chemical called the delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), and other compounds related to it. Marijuana is the most common illicit drug used all over the world especially in the United States. Its use had declined for close to a decade and then became very common as from 2007 as the effects associated with it are becoming more diminished. Marijuana is usually smoked in hand-rolled cigarettes called joints or smoked in blunts-cigars that have been emptied off tobacco. The smoke has a pungent smell usually sweet-and-sour, odor. It can also be mixed in foods and drinks.

When marijuana is smoked the THC is rapidly passed from the lungs into the bloodstream, which carries the substance to the brain. When it is ingested in foods and drinks, this process is much slower. According to the Institute of Medicine published in Mar 1999 report titled “Marijuana and Medicine: assessing the Science Base”: the THC enters the brain, it causes the user to feel euphoric (high) by acting on the brain’s reward system which consists of regions that are responsible for governing pleasurable things like sex and chocolate as well as to most drugs of abuse. THC activates this receptors of the brain by simulating brain cells to release the chemical dopamine.

Marijuana

The users describe two stages of feeling high after intake of marijuana: initial simulation (giddiness and euphoria), followed by sedation and a pleasant tranquility. Their also reported altered perceptions of time and distance as well as heightened sensitivity to sights and sounds. Relaxation is also another frequently reported effect in users of marijuana. They tend to become more relaxed and there is a feeling of bliss and contentment. Their appetite is also greatly improved. After a while, this effects subsidized and the user may feel sleepy or depressed. On rare occasions, marijuana use may produce anxiety, fear, distrust or panic. Users may get very paranoid and anxious until the euphoria reduces.

Marijuana also affects brain development, and when it is used heavily by young people, its effects on their memory and thinking capacity may last a long time or even be permanent.  According to a recent study of marijuana users, those who started using at a very young age showed greatly reduced connectivity among brain areas responsible for learning and memory. Those who started smoking heavily in their teens have lost an average of 8 points in IQ between the age 13 and 38, according to a study in New Zealand. Those who started smoking marijuana in their adulthood did not show fairly large declines in their IQ. Marijuana also impairs a person’s ability to form new memories and to shift focus. The substance THC disrupts a person’s coordination and balance by binding to the receptors in the cerebellum and basal ganglia responsible for regulating balance, posture, coordination, and reaction time.

Large intakes of marijuana makes users have acute psychosis, which is basically hallucinations, delusions, and a loss of the sense of identity. Marijuana users are very much likely to end up depressed, anxious and generally their loose the will to live and become suicidal as well as personality disturbances. One of the controversies on the same is the amotivational syndrome, defined as a diminished or absence of the drive to take part in any rewarding activity. As a result of the endocannabinoid system regulating mood, these associations make a certain amount of sense; however, this research is yet to be completed to help us better understand how marijuana use is connected to mental illness in the future. This research also shows that, individuals with one or two copies of the Val variant have a higher risk of developing schizophrenic-type disorders if they used marijuana during adolescence.

Marijuana use during pregnancy is associated with increased neurobehavioral problems in baby after birth. The baby’s endocannabinoid chemicals are mimicked by the marijuana THC and other compounds. This in result causes poor development of the endocannabinoid system in the brain of the fetus. This will in future result in poor memory, problems in attention and problem solving hence they become very slow in responding to their surrounding stimuli. THC exposure also disrupts synapses which help connect nerve cells and allow for the efficient transfer of neurotransmitters. The child is also likely to develop more psychiatric illnesses such as depression, anxiety, attention-deficit disorder, and schizophrenia.

Marijuana

Marijuana use for a long time causes the brain to continually make the user crave for the same as one tends to get addicted. The development of the frontal cortex is affected and as a result affect a person’s reward system leading to prolonged addiction, and ultimately affects one’s decision making. This addicts are more likely to get impaired executive function and a proclivity to choose the easier task. This may be seen in the user taking part in criminal activities and engaging in violence.

Research has shown that heavy marijuana users tend to have more problems in their daily life or it makes their existing problems worse. They report lower life satisfaction, poorer mental and physical health, more relationship problems, and they also have less academic and career success compared to non-marijuana users. They tend to drop out of school more, they are the highest number of the absentees in their places of work and also are likely to get into accidents more. They have poor coordination. Marijuana users who have become addicted should seek help in rehabilitation centers. As of late, more research is being carried out to determine more effects of marijuana in the brain. It has also been introduced in the medical field as it is given to cancer patients to increase their appetite and to reduce pain.

Marijuana smokers process emotional information differently in the amygdala

Related articles

Facebooktwitterpinterestlinkedin

  • Recent Posts

  • Blog Categories